FEATURES AND ADAPTATION OF MAMMALS TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Mammals possess many features that are shared with other animals. These include the possession of backbones (vertebral column) and being warm-blooded which they have with vertebrates and birds respectively. They however have features which are peculiar to them. These are presented here.

1. The integument: This is the external covering of the animal and from it hairs grow. The hairs cover the whole body of mammals, but it is sparsely distributed in the others. The hairs also serve as insulators warming the animal up against cold and thus help in maintaining the body temperature of the mammal. Possession of hairs is one of the characteristic of Mammals.  Hairs are projections out of the Mammalian integument.  Hairs are important in Mammals due to their usefulness in the maintenance of a constant internal body temperature.  The internal body temperature of mammals lies between 35 and 40^o C.  The maintenance of a constant internal body temperature termed homoithermy is achieved partly by the functioning of hairs.  The hair covering on the body surface of mammals is referred to as fur.  The mammalian fur is made up of two kinds of hairs:

 a.         Under hairs -    These sense and soft hairs they tray a layer of air which conserves

                                    heat on the surface of the skin and thus insulate the body

b.        Guard hairs –   These are coarse and horny relative to the underhairs.  They are for  protection against wear and for giving colour to the animal body.  The coloration itself is caused by pigmentation in the guard hairs.

MODIFICATION OF HAIRS

   1.      Sensory vibrissae – These are found under the eyes and on the snout of most mammals.

   2.      Bristles -     Found in hedgehogs

   3.      Spines    -  Found in spiny anteaters, porcupines and some other mammals.

 Further about hairs:

-      Hairs are exclusively found in Mammals

-      Hairs are not found in some parts of the body except the palms of the hand and soles of         

       the feat.  Also not found in the parts on the buttocks of some mammals e.g. baboons.

 Also from the integument are three different kinds of glands namely the sweat, sebaceous and mammary glands the mammary gland is usually well developed in females where it produces milk and function in suckling the young. This is where mammals derived their name.  Mammals possess mammary glands.  In the males, these glands are rudimentary or absent while they are fully developed and secret milk in the adult female.  Mammals derive their name from this feature.  Only Mammals possess mammary glands.  The number of mammary glands possessed by the mammals and their position on the body defers depending on the species concerned.  The number varies from two to twelve or more in terms of position, these glands may be

(i)                 Pectoral when they are found in the upper part of the body.

(ii)               Auxiliary

(iii)             Pectoral- abdominal when they are found on the ventral and along the long axis of the body

(iv)             Inguinal when they are in the ventral section and between the two hind legs.

Sexes and Reproduction: In all mammals the sexes are separate and reproduction is sexual and is effected by internal fertilization resulting in the formation of foetus. The foetus which so develops after a while is born alive. This is called viviparity. An exception from this is seen only in the egg-laying mammals found in Australia. In mammals, the sexes are separate.  There is marked sexual dimorphisms in most mammals due to physiological and anatomical difference.  For instance the female has well developed mammary glands manifested as breasts while the males have rudimentary mammary.  Also the female have a vaginal opening which leads into the uterus through the vulva while the males have a corpulatory organ, Penis and a pair of testes commonly in a sac called the scrotum which is usually located outside the abdomen.  Fertilization is internal in all mammals and an embryo results.  Most mammals are viviparous in which they give birth to live young ones after a period of pregnancy or gestation, the exception being the primitive mammals  -   monotremes, which lay eggs just like birds.  The monotremes are therefore oviparous.  Since gestation period is the time el takes the embryo to develop up to the birth of the young, monotremes have no gestation period, however the incubate their eggs.  In monotreme eggs, extraembryonic membranes namely amnion, chorion and allantois are present during development. 

In placentals, the gestation period varies with respect to species.  During gestation the development embryo called foetus is nourished by means of placenta.  The placenta is also called after-birth as it is expelled after the young one is born.  The birth of the young mammal is called parturition.  After parturition there is parental care of the young mammal by its parent during which it is taught some skills that are important for survival.  In mammals the chances of survival are quite high, they therefore give birth to only a few young at a time.  The number of young ones delivered at any one time by a mammal is described as litter size.  The litter size of some species is always one for example the marsupial phalanger, Dacrylopsits sp. In most mammals, there are definite mating seasons.  This happens when the animal is on heat and it coincides with the oestroes cycle.  Man is an exception to this.  In man, the oestrus cycle is the menstral cycle because it terminates in the shedding off of the uterine linning endometrium) with some blood which is termed menstruation.

3. Jaw Mechanism, Heterodont Dentition and Digestive System: Mammals possess a unique jaw mechanism in which the lower jaw is made up of a single bone called dentary.  In mammals only does the dentary articulate directly with the skull.  This arrangement gives the animal a powerful jaw mechanism that can grind and cut up food. Mammals posses well-developed dentitions and complex digestive system which begins with a pair of fleshy lips bordering the mouth, lead up to the stomach, small intestine, large intestine and terminates at the anus or cloaca (is primitive mammals i.e. the monotremes).  The mouth houses the teeth which varies in types, arrangement, and numbers with respect to various mammals.  The totality types of the types, numbers and arrangement of the teeth of an animal is referred to as its dentition.  Mammals have two sets of teeth throughout their lifetime that is an initial set of milk teeth which are grown at infancy and are later replaced lay a new set of permanent teeth.  The possession of two successive set of  teeth as found in mammals is referred to as diphyodont dentition.  Typically in mammals the teeth are differentiated into different types according to their functions and the food habits of the animal.  This is referred to as heterodont dentition. 

Mammals normally possess four types of teeth namely incisors, canines, premolars and molars.  The description of the dentition of mammals follows a standard pattern.

The maximum number of teeth in mammals is 44 as seen in sections of the dental formula of mammal are shown.  A tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth. The tongue has numerous sensory reception corpuscles referred to as taste buds.  The tongue is therefore responsible for taste.  Salivary glands discharge their secretions – saliva into the buccal cavity to aid and commence the process of digestion.  There three salivary glands namely (i)  Parotid   (ii) Submaxillary and (iii) Sublingual.  The food chopped and beaten by the teeth during mastication are rolled with the aid of the tongue into bolus and swallowed through the oesophagus into the stomach.  In most mammals, the stomach is simple but it is divided into chambers in some.  For example in rumninants (e.g. cattle, deer etc) and whales where it is divided to four chambers.  

4.      Pinnae: The auditory system is composed of three parts namely the Inner ear Middle and an Outer ear.  There are three bones in the middle ear namely Maleus (hanner), Incus (anvil) and stapes.  The Inner ear is a system of tubes called the semicircular canal which are three number and functions in maintaining balance for the animal.  The Inner and Middle ear are connected to the outer ear by the Eustacian canal which leads outside of the animal body and connects with an external fleshly pinna (plural pinnae).  The pinnae are found exclusively in mammals.

5.      Nervous system: this is composed of a well developed brain and 12 pairs of cranial nerves. This is one characteristic that marks mammals out among other vertebrates.  The most anterior portions of the brain, the cerebral hemispheres are pained, very large and expended in most other invertebrates, these hemispheres are small.  The cerebral hemispheres provides for a high level of coordination in all activities excluding leaving and retentive memory.  These in turn are made possible by the sheets of nervous tissue consisting of several mullions of nerve cells called the grey matter.  In mammals also, the senses of sight, smelling and hearing are well developed

6.      Circulatory/Transport System: this is composed of a heart of four chambers (two aurides and two ventricles), left aorta and non-nucleated biconcave red blood cells. The heart of mammals is found in a pericardial cavity and it is fully divided into four chambers with two upper atria and two lower ventricles (figure--)  There is complete separation of the veinous and arterial blood.  Mammals share this feature and arrangement of the birds.

7.      Respiration and the diaphragm: Respiration is effected through a pair of lungs and voice box. The Diaphragm: this is a sheet of membrane separating the thoracic from the abdominal region of the mammal. It is found only in mammals. It founds in gaseous exchange. This is a muscular sheath which separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity of the animal.   The heart and lungs are in the thoracic cavity which run stomach, intestine in the urinary system.  Functionally, the diaphragm is very important in the breathing mechanism of the animal.  When the diaphragm contracts it becomes cured him a inverted letter (See Figure) and flattens out in the relaxed state.  The contracted diaphragm forces a reduction in the volume of the lungs, hence an increase in lung pressure which forces out air (exhalation).  When the reverse happens, that is the diaphragm relaxes, pressure is reduced in the lungs and so volume increase and draws in air (inhalation), thus complete the cycle of gaseous exchange or breathing.

8.      Skeletal System of mammals is characterized by two occipital condyles, seven cervical vertebrae and an elongated tail made of caudal vertebrae.

9.  The excretory system is composed of the kidneys (usually one pair) and ureters that leads into a bladder. Mammals presses a pair bear-shaped metanephric kidneys located in the dossal part of the abdominal cavity.  When dissected a mammalian kidney shows the following parts:

1. Cortex -  This is outer and contain the renal corpuscles, convoluted tubes and blood vessels.
2. Medulla – This is divided into triangular wedges called renal pyramids.  The broad tissues of these pyramids are divided towards the cortex and narrow apices referred to as renal papillae are oriented towards the centre of the kidney and opens into the calyx and pelvis.
3. Ureter -   Each kidney has a ureter, a duct leading into the pelvis empties fluid into the Urinary bladder.

Urinary bladder -  This is an organ where urine is stored before existing to the outside.

 Urethra -  This is another duct.  It drains the urinary bladder and conducts its content to the outside.

 The functional unit of each kidney is the nephron.  Each kidney has about 1,500.000 nephrons consisting of a closed bulb called Bowman’s capsule or glomerular capsule. 

Functions of the Kidney 

There are three main functions of the kidney

      1.                  Glomerular filtration

2.                  Tubular reabsorption

3.                  Tubular secretion

 10. Movable eyelids. All mammals have movable eyelids.Mammals have movable eyelids. This is a characteristic shared with birds. Mammals have two eyelids while birds have three. The main function of the eyelids in mammals is to protect the eye. This function of protection is against physical injury, and drying of the cornea. The cornea is protected from drying by the lachrymal fluid called tears produced by the lachrymal glands located beneath the eyelid. Blinking of the eye helps to spread the lachrymal fluid across the cornea and thus lubricating it.

11. All mammals are endothermic and homeothermic. Endothermy refers to the ability of animal to maintain a constant body temperature irrespective of the temperature of its environment. Endothermic animals are also known as warm blooded animals. Mammals and birds are the main endothermic animals, although some fish species such as Sharks and Tuna are also endothermic.

Homeothermic animals maintain a stable body temperature higher than that of their surroundings. These animals achieve stable body temperature by regulating their metabolism. Only birds and mammals are homeothermic animals.

 

ASSIGNMENT

Various mammal species have mammary glands of different numbers. On the bases of their number and arrangement identify the different groups of mammals.

Submit as comment by Friday 24th June 2016, 8.00 am Lagos, Nigeria Time

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF NIGERIA
BRAND NEW FELLOWS

Dateline Wednesday 8th October, 2014. The Entomological Society of Nigeria (ESN) opened the 45th Annual conference of the society at the University of Abuja, Airport road Campus. As part of the ceremonies of Day 1, two new Fellows of the ESN were inaugurated. The two brand new fellows are Prof. (Mrs.) Winifred Makanjuola and Prof. Olufemi Ashamo.





PLATE 1: PROF. TOLA BADEJO (VICE /CHANCELLOR OF WESTLEY UNIVERSITY, ONDO, DECORATES PROF. WINIFRED MAKANJUOLA WITH ESN COLLAR





PROF. WINIFRED MAKANJUOLA ROCKS HER COLLAR AND AWARD PLAQUE

PLATE 3: BEHOLD THE BRAND NEW FELLOW, ESN, PROF (MRS) MAKANJUOLA

Makanjuola is Professor of Entomology at the University of Lagos and Chairman of the Lagos branch of the society.

PLATE 4: PROF. OLUFEMI ASHAMO TAKES A STAND JUST BEFORE HIS INVESTITURE AS FELLOW, ESN

PLATE 5: PROFESSOR DAN ENOBAKHARE FESN, PRESIDENT OF THE ESN PREPARES TO DECORATE PROF. ASAHAMO WITH THE ESN COLLAR AS ASHAMO DISPLAYS HIS AWARD PLAQUE.

PLATE 6: PROF. ASAMO GIVES A RESPONSE AFTER HIS INVESTITURE.

Olufemi Ashamo FESN is a professor of Entomology at the Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA). He is also the National Secretary of the ESN. He was returned unopposed to serve a second term of two years as the associations National Secretary.

The conference closed, pronouncing that the next conference which comes up in October 2015 will be hosted by the Lagos Branch.

THE ORIGIN, PHYLOGENY AND EVOLUTION OF
MAMMALS

ORIGIN OF MAMMALS

Definition

The animal kingdom has the following recognized groups

1 The Protozoa divided into 13 phyla namely Phylum Euglenozoa, Alveolata, Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa, Ciliophora, CAxostylata, Retortamonada, Opalinata, Microspora, Rhizopoda, Granuloreticulosa and Actinopoda.

2. The Sponges namely Phylum Porifera

3. The Radiate animals namely Phylum Cbidaria and Phylum Ctenophora

4. The flatworms namely Phylum Paltyhelminthes,

5. The round worms namely Phylum Rotifera, Phylum Nemata formerly called Phylum Nematoda

6. The earthworms - Phylum Annelida

7. The Arthropods –

8. The Mollusca – Phylum Mollusca

9. The Echinoderms – Phylum Echodermata

10. The Deuterostomes – Phylum Chaetognata, Phylum Hemichordata, Phylum Chordata

The Phylum Chordata has three subphyla namely

i.                    Subphylum Urochordata

ii.                  Subphylum Cephalochordata

iii.                Chordata.

The subphylum chordate consists of several classes  of animals with notochord and there are five major groups namely

i.                    Fishes (Pisces)

ii.                  Amphibians (Amphibia)

iii.                Reptiles (Reptilia)

iv.                Birds (Aves)

v.                  Mammals (Mammalia).

Introduction to Mammals

Mammals are animals belonging to the Class Mammalia.

They are chordates, possessing a notochord manifested by the vertebral column in adults. Characteristically, they are animals with well developed milk producing mammary glands and they exhibit elaborate care of their young ones which are born alive, except in the extremely primitive ones which are egg layers. Although there are other features possessed by mammals, the ones mentioned here distinguish them from other animals.

Other features of mammals would be discussed later.

Evolution and Phylogeny of Mammals

Phylogeny

Mammals evolved from reptiles, but it is difficult to trace their their phylogenetic relationship with the extant reptiles. Why is this so? This so because the reptilian subclass (Subclass Synapsida), which gave rise to mammals diverged early on the evolutionary tree. The relationship of mammals to the synapsids can therefore only be traced using fossil records.

The catastrophe which befell the dinosaurs some 65 million years ago and led to their extinction gave a chance for the rapid evolution and success of mammals. While the dinosaurs existed they dominated the earth such that the mammals existing at that time were mainly insectivorous, unnoticeable shrew-like animals that foraged for food at night while the dinosaur had become inactive since they were diurnal. The large mammals were therefore non-existent.

That was the status quo until the extinction of the dinosaurs following which the surviving mammals suddenly became grazers, browsers and predators, and they evolved along different lines.

The first Mammals

Going by this phylogenetic history, it is established that the first mammals appeared some 230 million years ago. This coincided with the time the dinosaur started dominating the earth.

Features of the first set of mammals

These mammals were distinct from their reptilian ancestors and co-inhabitants of the earth in that their body was covered with a coat of hairs called fur. The fur, being an insulator, provided warmth for the mammal, an essential condition for its warn-blooded nature

The Direct Antecedents of Mammals

Among the reptiles, the direct antecedent to mammals were the Pelicosaurs, a group which lived in the carboniferous and early Permian periods (that is 340 – 260 million years ago).

These were extremely primitive reptiles. Notable among them, however, is ophiacodon which shows striking features that indicates its ancestry with mammals. Such characters are in the skull structure, including the presence of a single opening in the temple region of the skull. These pelicosaus were succeeded in the late Permian and the early Triassic (that is some 225 million years ago) by the therapsids.

The therapsids were carnivores and active four-footed runners. They had their elbow and knee swung in towards the body as in their contemporary descendants. The advantage of this arrangement is that it makes for better support and speed. In the advanced Triassic species features such as skull, jaw, dentition and limbs closely resemble the mammalian pattern, one of these mammal like reptiles called Lycaenops was discovered in the later Permian of South Africa.

Intelligent activity alertness and the aforementioned characteristics of mammals were developed during the period of domicile under the dinosaurs.

EVOLUTION AMONG MAMMALS

From the ancestral therapsids, evolution of mammals have taken place giving rise to animals of different forms and habits. In this regard there are three main limes of evolution. They are presented here in order to evolution and advancement.

The Prototheria: these are the first to evolve from the therapsids. They are also called monotremes. They appeared in the Jurassic period, some 180 million years ago. They are the most primitive among mammals. These animals are restricted to Australia and have only two surviving members namely the Duck-bill platypus and the Spiny ant–eaters.

The monotremes bear many characters which are diagnostic of mammals. They however retain certain features of their primitive reptilian stock, notably oviposition (egg-laying).

The duck-bill is somewhat “amphibious” being semi-aquatic. Its feet are webbed, its body covered with for and it frequent strews where it hunts for snails and mussels. The ant-eater on the other hand is has its body covered with protective spiny hairs. It is endowed with powerful clawed feet which endears its remarkable digging ability and making it effective hunter of subterranean termites. One attribute common to the monotremes is that thy both make nests in borrows where the shelled eggs are hatched and the hatchlings are nursed. Also they are toothless as adults. In the duck-bill, the teeth are replaced by flat and duck-like horny bills while slender horny bills take place of teeth in the adult ant-eater.

The Metatheria: These are also called the marsupials or pouched mammals. They are more advanced than the monetremes. They evolved in the early cretaceous (that is about 130 million years ago) coinciding with the extinction of the dinosaurs. The marsupials give birth to live offspring, the young are born tiny and immature. Typically therefore, the females posses a pouch on their bellies where the newborn are nursed for some time after birth. The marsupials lack placentas needed to nourish the foetus during gestation (pregnancy). They are therefore primitive mammals. Examples of marsupial include the Oppossum the Tasmanian wolf, the Kangaroos and so on. The marsupials are found in Australia, although the opossum is also found in the Americas. Some marsupials such as the kangaroos are herbivores while others like the Tasmanian wolf are carnivorous.

The Eutheria: these are the placental mammals simply called the placentals. They are regarded as the true mammals. They contrast sharply with marsupials in that they possess the placenta – an nutritive connection between the mother and the foetus during gestation. This enables the foetus to develop to a much more advanced stage before parturition (birth). The placentals are the most advanced and they include all higher mammals. They evolved in the Paleocene epoch during the tertiary period (some 65 million years ago) after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Therefore has been rapid evolution of diverse forms of these mammals. For this and their wide distribution and abundance reference to mammals are usually made to the placentals.

Abundance and Diversity of mammals

There are about 4,000 species of mammals and they occupy almost every environment that supports life on earth. Consequently, mammals are regarded as the most biologically successful group in the Animal Kingdom. They are highly diverse in size, shape, form and function. The pigmy shrew, for instance is a terrestrial mammal measuring less than 4cm in length and just a few grams in weight. In contrast, the blue whale is an aquatic mammal whose weight is about 190 tonnes. Also, Kitti’s hog-nosed bat (1.5 g) is only a little bigger than the bumble bee. The mammals also range from the ardent tunnellers like the moles to the specialized fliers like the bats. Bats are peculiar in that they are the only mammal group capable of true flight. In difference to the wings of pterosaurs and birds, the wing of bats is a web drawn tout by four of the five “fingers”. Ranges of mammals also include the monkeys hanging on tress to dolphins that live entirely in the sea.

Sierra Leone's Chief Ebola Doctor Contracts the Virus

Reuters July 23, 2014

By Umaru Fofana

The head doctor fighting an outbreak of the deadly Ebola virus in Sierra Leone has himself caught the disease, one of a growing list of medical workers infected while battling to halt its spread across West Africa.

Ebola has killed 632 people across Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone since an outbreak began in February, putting strain on a string of weak health systems facing one of the world’s deadliest diseases despite waves of international help.

In a sign of the growing frustrations with the failure of region’s governments to tackle the outbreak, a Liberian whose brother died from the disease set fire to the Health Ministry in protest on Wednesday.

A statement from the president’s office said 39-year-old Sheik Umar Khan, a Sierra Leonean virologist credited with treating more than 100 Ebola victims, had been transferred to a treatment ward run by medical charity Medecins Sans Frontieres.

A source at the ward confirmed that the doctor was alive and receiving treatment, but gave no details of his condition.

Khan has been hailed a “national hero” by the Health Ministry for his efforts to lead the fight against an outbreak that has killed 206 people in the West African nation.

There is no cure or vaccine for Ebola, which can kill up to 90 percent of those infected, although the mortality rate of the current outbreak is around 60 percent.

It was not immediately clear how Khan had caught the virus. His colleagues told Reuters that he was always meticulous with protection, wearing overalls, mask, gloves and special footwear. Three days ago, three nurses working in the same Ebola treatment center alongside Khan died from the disease.

Tarik Jasarevic, a spokesman for the World Health Organization, said around 100 health workers had been infected by Ebola in the three countries, with 50 of them dying.

"Personal protection equipment is very hot. But there is a very strict procedure how you wear it, how you take it off, what can be re-used or not," he said.

Earlier this month, Samuel Muhumuza Mutoro, a senior Ugandan doctor working in Liberia died after treated infected patients.

"AFRAID FOR MY LIFE"

The latest WHO figures, released on Saturday, showed that there were 19 new deaths and 67 new cases within the four days since its previous statement.

The Ebola outbreak started in Guinea’s remote southeast and has since spread across the region’s poorly controlled borders. Symptoms of the highly infectious disease are diarrhea, vomiting and internal and external bleeding.

Part of Liberia’s Health Ministry was destroyed on Wednesday when Monrovia resident Edward Deline set fire to the building in protest over the death of his 14-year-old brother from Ebola.

"The health (workers) here are not doing enough to fight this virus. They are taking this to be a money making thing while our people are dying," Deline told journalists after he was arrested by police.

Local and international health workers face a combination of fear, suspicion and local traditions for burying the dead as they try to prevent Ebola spreading further. 

During a Reuters visit to the Kenema treatment center in eastern Sierra Leone in late June, Khan said he had installed a mirror in his office, which he called his “policeman”, to check for holes in his protective clothing before entering an isolation ward. Nevertheless, Khan said he feared Ebola. “I am afraid for my life, I must say, because I cherish my life,” he said in an interview, showing no signs of ill health at the time. “Health workers are prone to the disease because we are the first port of call for somebody who is sickened by disease. Even with the full protective clothing you put on, you are at risk.”

(Additional reporting by Clair MacDougall, Alphonso Toweh and David Lewis; Writing by David Lewis and Emma Farge; Editing by Daniel Flynn and Alison Williams)

Culled from Yahoo News.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN NIGERIA – A CONTEMPORARY NOTE

PREAMBLE

A man called Sunday Nana in 1988  agreed with an Italian named Giafranco Rafeali that a shipload of wastes could be dumped in his backyard in Koko, a small town with an unknown port in Nigeria’s Delta State. The agreement was for a fee; a token that Nana thought could change his story of poverty and make his family a force to reckon with in the village and perhaps the entire state. The obnoxious shipment arrived Nigeria and then hues and cries started – Toxic Radioactive wastes have been dumped in that sleepy town!  This dumping soon became publicized and politicized and thus a new vista was opened for environmental protection in Nigeria. This came through the enacment of laws and subsequently the Environmental Impact Assessment Law which stipulates the meaning, Scope and procedures of carrying out Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in Nigeria.  Prior to the EIA law, their have been some laws already in force, but first, what is EIA?  After defining and delimiting the scope of EIA, it would be interesting to know how did it come about in Nigeria, how it is carried, what it seeks to achieve and how has it fared.  These are some of the the goals this note seeks to achieve.

WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)?

“Environmental Impact” is a term used to describe the alteration of environmental conditions. It may also apply to the creation of a new set of actions, or environmental conditions which may be detrimental or beneficial to a community or ecosystem. The impact is the difference between the future environment as a result of the project or action(s) and the future environment as it would have been if allowed to envolve naturally without the action(s) or project in foucs (Ehighelua, 2007). Consequently, Environmental Impact Assessement (EIA) can be described as a systematic process carried out to identify, predict and evaluate the environmental effects of proposed actions in order to aid decision making regarding the significant environmental consequences of projects, developments and programmes. EIA involves the evaluation, prediction, and public discussion of the effects (direct and indirect) that policies, programmes and investments have on the social and national environment (Garner, 1979). It therefore seeks to identify possible environmental damage and how such damage arising from the developmental activity can be avoided or mitigated. It can be summarily concluded that EIA is an environmental management tool used to foster sustainable development.  It is fairly well established that EIA helps the stakeholders to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of proposed development before a decision is taken on wether or not to proceed.  A petroleum multinational company in Nigeria, Shell, arguably one of the best ranked polluters and degraders of the country’s  environment claims that EIA an instrument by which it identifies and assess the potential environmental, social and health impacts of a proposed project, evaluate alternatives, and design appropriate environmental and social management plans during the life-cycle of the project.

(This note is will soon be updated)

 
EIA helps the stakeholders with the identification of the environmental, social and economic impacts of a proposed development before a decision is taken on whether or not to proceed. Particular attention is given in EIA practice to preventing, mitigating and offsetting the significant adverse effects of proposed undertakings.

The former Minister of Environment, Mrs Hadiza Ibrahim Mailafia have had reason to attribute the menace of environmental challenges confronting Nigeria to the inability of Nigerians, organisations and government at all levels to adhere to the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) law.

Such challenges according to the minister include persistent flooding in both northern and southern Nigeria, erosion in the east and desertification and degradation in the north.

For some time, EIA in Nigeria has been reduced to a mere A4 paper advert usually posted on the hidden part of the federal ministry of environment notice board informing Nigerians about a proposal project.

In 1992 the United Nations conference on Environment and Development, otherwise known as the “Earth Summit” of Rio de Jeneiro generated an action plan for sustainable development in the 21st century, which has become the policy instrument that drives environmental programmes in most developed countries.

Sustainable development was defined broadly as the ability of the present generation to meet its needs without compromising the potentials of the future generations to meet theirs. In fact Principle 3 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development provides that “The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations”.

In Nigeria, the Environmental Impact Assessment regulations came into being in 1992 and are principally contained in the EIA Act No. 86 of 1992 and administered by federal ministry of environment.

Section 3(1) of the EIA act noted that “in identifying the environmental impact assessment process under this Decree, the relevant significant environmental issues shall be identified and studied before commencing or embarking on any project or activity covered by the provisions of this Decree or covered by the Agency or likely to have serious environmental impact on the Nigerian environment.

By law it is compulsory for all projects undertaken in the country to be assessed based on the law but findings from the ministry of environment shows that it is not so. As in practice the law stands abrogated, as it can’t rightly be enforced by the regulator since its commencement.

This is due to lack of technical resources by the government regulatory body on the one hand and the considerable leverage of the operators of projects (with potential hazards) over the regulator on the other hand. Both the regulator and operators often engage in pretend game at the expense of the local communities.

A matter at a High Court, involving the federal ministry of environment and some coastal communities along the Imo River is a case in question. The federal government awarded the contract for the dredging of the river to improve vehicular access to the nation’s only aluminium smelting factory at Ikot Abasi. The affected coastal communities stiffly resisted the project on the ground that the draft EIA Report was unfavourable to the project.

Unknown to them however, the final report got the approval of the ministry and so the dredging project commenced. This represents a classic failure of consultations and so today the matter is subjudice.

In the developed countries, compliance with environmental standards is best achieved not only when government regulators enforce the law, but also with strong community pressure both on the operators and on the government agencies. In Nigeria, there are frequently less political and legal avenues for the participation of local communities and NGO’s in the administrative, political and judicial decision – making process regarding environmentally sensitive facilities.

The basic challenge confronting the federal ministry of environment remained the translation of the laudable provisions of the Act into an effective tool for managing the environment.

The challenge is crucial because Nigeria, like most developing countries, has excellent legislation on various issues, which nevertheless suffers failure at the implementation stage.

Experience especially in respect of infrastructure projects has shown that Environmental Impact Assessment is hardly undertaken prior to the approval of any project. The case of National Stadium Abuja is typical.

Dr Samuel Akintola, an environmentalist said that EIA has been reduced to paper work in Nigeria. “We are in an era where people disregard the need for an EIA before embarking on any project. We all know the law is there but the ministry do not have the capacity to enforce it, and that is why companies and government at all levels disregard it and nothing happens.”

Akintola said it was necessary to establish a commission with the responsibilities of implementing the EIA law in the country rather than domicile it the ministry where it will remain business as usual.

It has to be acknowledged that Nigeria has taken serious steps to develop effective environmental strategies by the promulgation of the EIA Decree and all the procedural guidelines but observers said there are too many regulators with similar and identical responsibilities. Harmonization and clear allocation of responsibilities has become necessary.

David Okali, former president of the Nigerian Academy of Science cited the EIA law as one of the best environmental laws in the country but regretted that its implementation left much to be desired.

So it is high time the ministry is supported for effective compliance monitoring and enforcement, so as to ensure that stiffer sanctions and penalties are prescribed and strictly adhered to. This way EIA requirement will be met and maintained. The ministry also need to as a matter of urgency establish a databank and provide baseline data to guide the implementation of the EIA law in Nigeria cannot be overemphasis as according to observers, the EIA process is in transition in Nigeria, and may take years or even decades to develop and this depends on a strong and continuous political commitment at the highest levels.

 

Environmental Impact Assessment Reports – Shell PDC

Our EIA reports stipulate how we manage the impact and benefit to the environment and society.

It is an instrument by which we identify and assess the potential environmental, social and health impacts of a proposed project, evaluate alternatives, and design appropriate environmental and social management plans during the life-cycle of the project.

 

In Nigeria, we complete Environmental, Social and Health Impact Assessments (EIAs) for all our development projects, in accordance with Nigerian Law. The aim is to reduce the environmental and social impact of our activities as much as possible and look for benefits for affected communities.

Our EIA reports stipulate how we manage the impact and benefit to the environment and society. It is an instrument by which we identify and assess the potential environmental, social and health impacts of a proposed project, evaluate alternatives, and design appropriate environmental and social management plans during the life-cycle of the project. These reports are scrutinized by the regulator as part of the approval process for the project.

This web page contains Categories 1 and 2 EIA reports that have received final regulatory approvals since 2005. By regulation, Category 1 EIAs are on public display for a minimum of 21 working days and also undergo public reviews, which are managed by the regulators, depending on the size of the project. Category 2 EIAs, on the other hand are not subjected to 21-working days public display but undergo Technical reviews managed by regulators.

See other posts on environmental impact assessment law.

BIOSAFETY WORKSHOP CLOSES IN TRIESTE, ITALY

The 2014 edition of the Biosafety workshop held at the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Trieste, Italy which began on Monday has started winding down. The workshop which theme is the Role of Science in GMO Decision Making has been of tremendous interest and motivation for the Centre, the Faculty and Participants.

BIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

INSECT COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

1. Sweep net sampling

Collections of flying insects, or those inhabiting foliage, can be made using a sweep net. Several types of nets are available, with standard sizes being either 30.5 cm (12 in) or 38 cm (15 in) diameter. Aerial nets (net on the right) have an open mesh collection bag and are used mainly to capture flying insects, although they can be swept through light vegetation such as tall grass. Beating nets (net on the left) are made from canvas and are used to sweep through vegetation that could snag and tear a mesh bag. A sweep is a single back and forth sweep covering a 150⁰ to 180⁰ arc. Collected insects can be identified and counted live in the net, or placed in a container with a piece of paper towel soaked with non-acetone nail polish remover to kill them to facilitate counting.

 

2. Leaf litter sampling

Insects that inhabit leaf litter or mulch can be surveyed by placing some of this material in an apparatus know as a Berlese-Tullgren funnel, which is designed to separate insects from the litter. A simple funnel can be constructed by removing the bottom from a potable water bottle and placing a piece of 0.6 mm (1/4 in) mesh hardware cloth inside the neck of the bottle. The inverted bottle should be  supported over a container to collect the insects that come out of the litter. To facilitate the movement of insects from the litter, a 15W to 25W bulb placed over the funnel will cause the insects to move deeper into the litter, through the screen, and into the container. The preservative in the container can be 75 to 80% ethanol.

3. Light trap sampling

Although insects have good color vision, they do not see the same wavelengths of light as humans. The human eye can typically distinguish colors ranging from red (760 nm [nanometers]) to purple (380 nm), while it has been shown that most insects see colors from yellow / green (550 nm) to ultraviolet [UV] (340 nm). Since many nocturnal insects are attracted to UV, trapping or killing devices have been developed that use UV bulbs to attract insects either to a collection container (we call these light traps) or to an electric grid (we call these bug zappers). Because insects do not perceive light in the red to yellow range, we use yellow bug lights outdoors to reduce the number of insects attracted to areas around our homes. Since most humans see relatively well under yellow light, these bulbs allow us to see while not attracting many insects. A simple light trap design is illustrated below. It’s construction is also described. Traps can be built either as single units or as a series of lights that can be used to allow comparison among bulbs of different colors, from several manufacturers, or having different wattage.

 

4. Pitfall trapping.

Pitfall traps are collect populations of insects and other arthropods living on the ground surface. Typically, traps are set up and allowed to collect insects for a minimum of 24 hours. The basic trap consists of a container set into the ground so that the upper rim is flush with the ground surface. Since many insects are predators and will eat other insects in the trap, a solution to kill and preserve insects entering the trap is used.

5. Aquatic insect collections using D-framed nets

These nets have a opening with a flat side (the D part) (at left). They can be used like a kick-net, with the flat side placed on the stream bottom so that it collects organisms dislodged when submerged objects upstream are disturbed. It also can be used more like a dip net and scraped along submerged objects to dislodge and collect organisms, or the flat side can be pulled across the bottom sediments of a pond or stream to sample organisms in that habitat.

 

Note: This post is still undergoing developments. Please update constantly.

BIO 101 (BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY) (3 UNITS)

CONTENT: Levels of biological organisation and basic characteristics of living things. Microscope concepts.  Macromolecules, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Cell structure and function of organelles. Basic Principles of reproduction – Mitosis and growth; Meiosis and gametogenesis. Inhertance and variation.  Evolutionary trends.